Hamlet is a thinker not a man of action Essay Example for Free

settlement is a thinker not a humanness of execute EssayHamlets unity mission in the tactic is to revenge the death of his father by killing Claudius, however his procrastination leads to his untimely death, the deaths of many others in the Danish judicatory and the relinquishment of Denmark to Fortinbras. Hamlets first words show a desire of revenge towards Claudius A little more than kin and less than kind. yet later in his soliloquy we conform to that he is actually closer to killing himself, than killing Claudius or the perpetrator O that this too too sullied flesh would melt, / Thaw and respond itself into a dew, He doesnt even contemplate killing Claudius he hopes that the situation will resolve itself, which it never will, showing his unwillingness to act. This soliloquy also shows that he is not the bravest of people, as he faecal matternot tell his mother how he really feels, another restrictive character trait when trying to revenge someone But break, my hear t for I must hold my tongue. In his soliloquy straight after Hamlets conversation with the Ghost he seems determine to kill his uncle, thy commandment all shall live / Within the book and volume of my brain. The use of the word commandment shows that he will follow the Ghosts word religiously. This shows that he is resolute, as a man of action would be. However, this is countered almost immediately at the end of the scene O cursed spite, / That ever I was born to set it right. This shows that Hamlet is scared to compact out what he has to do, he would much rather someone else revenge his father than he. The first device that Hamlet uses to carry out his revenge is to cause to be mad. By this pretence he hopes to draw the attention a bureau of the court away from him so that he can watch and follow Claudius to see if he is showing any signs of guilt. He tells Guildenstern of his madness. I am mad barely north-north-west. When the wind is / southerly, I know a hawk from a handsaw . His tell intention is to gain irrefutable evidence of Claudiuss villainy. He initiates this by visiting Ophelia in a state of undress and handing her a love letter, making Polonius turn over that his madness is due to Ophelias rejection of him. Hamlet uses his feigned madness to show his true emotions and insult people he doesnt the like You are a fishmonger. A fishmonger in Elizabethan times could have meant pimp, showing that Hamlet thinks that Polonius is using his daughter to gain favour within the court.Hamlets feigned madness does affect Claudius in the first act he delivers long speeches, but by Act 2 he is reduced to short sentences like We will try it. This is an action, but it is one that allows him to procrastinate. When Hamlet is left alone he laments his weakness and inactivity. An actor could weep at the imagined grief of Hecuba, w presentas Hamlet fails to respond to the murder of his father bust in his eyes, distraction in his aspect, / A broken voice, and h is whole function suiting / forms to his conceit? And all for nothing / For Hecuba Hamlets principles cause him a great freshet of self-criticism Why what an ass am I This is most brave, / That I the son of a dear father murderd, / Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, / Must like a whore unpack my heart with words/ And fall a-cursing like a very drab, He curses his inactivity, showing that, although he is a thinker, he would elect to be a man of action. At the end of the soliloquy he seems resolved to revenge Claudius, the Mouse-Trap play is a form of revenge once once against Claudius, but again it is not direct revenge, as he is still procrastinating.The concomitant that he has not confronted Claudius four months after confirmation from the ghost that Claudius is the guilty party shows that he is definitely a thinker. Hamlets soliloquy at the start of Act 3 still shows his overwhelming desire to think, particularly about suicide To be or not to be. The fact that he is s till has time for soliloquies, and that he is not trying to hunt Claudius down and kill him, shows that he is definitely a thinker. Hamlet shows a lack of self knowledge as he cannot, as he intended in Act 1 sc 5 with locomote as swift / As meditation or the thoughts of love / May sweep to my revenge. Instead he broods on his fathers death and even when he gets induction from Claudiuss reaction to the Mouse Trap play, Ill take the ghosts word for a thousand pound. He hesitates and needs further spurring by the ghost in Act 3 to whet thy almost blunted purpose. Hamlet has the perfect opportunity to kill Claudius in Act 3 sc 3, but again he procrastinates, letting himself think about what will happen to Claudius soul A villain kills my father, and for that I, his sole son, do this same villain send to heaven. He doesnt act, because he thinks that Claudius is praying, cleansing his soul. This would send him to heaven, not hell where he belongs. The irony is that Claudius himself ha s too much on his conscience and cannot pray, My words fly up, my thoughts remain below. / rowing without thoughts never to heaven go. Hamlet curses himself in a later soliloquy for his lack of action. Hamlets first action of physical revenge is to stab Polonius behind the arras. This action shows that he can only do something on the spur of the moment.If hed had time to think about it, he would have found a way just about stabbing the person behind the arras, electing instead to procrastinate. Hamlet meets Fortinbras army in Act 4 sc 4, which makes him feel depressed when he compares himself to Fortinbras the Norwegian Prince is ready to fight over something of very little value, while he hasnt yet taken revenge for the murder of his father and the seduction of his mother How all make do inform against me, / And spur my dull revenge. Hamlet does what he always does when confronted with a problem he has a soliloquy. However, this is his last soliloquy, which could suggest that h e is through with(p) with thinking now, and will finally carry out his revenge. Hamlet shows another decisive action, in dealing with the betrayal of his one-time friends, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and with Claudius attempt to have him killed on his way to England. He replaces his own name with that of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in the letter, ensuring that they will be killed in his place.He also Boards a pirate ship so that he can return to Denmark, these are all very decisive actions focused to towards revenging his fathers death. Hamlets entrance into Ophelias funeral certainly is more action-focussed than his previous actions This is I, / Hamlet the Dane. His fight with Laertes, declaration of his love of Ophelia and his thumb from prose to verse show that he is longer talking his self into lying and misleading others. Therefore he is not thinking as much as he is acting.Hamlets next action is to duel with Laertes, not knowing that it has been fixed so that Hamlet will die, but as with most strategies in the play, it does go according to plan Both Laertes and Hamlet are wounded by the poisoned sword, Gertrude drinks the poisoned wine, and one of Hamlets dying acts is to force Claudius to drink the poisoned wine, which he does with relish, enjoying the power he has, and the fact that he is killing the person who killed his father, seduced his mother, taken his thrown and plotted to kill him twice Here thou incestuous, murdrous, damned Dane, / Drink off this potion.Is thy union here? / Follow my mother. His action here was done purely, without any thought. As he dies Hamlet names Fortinbras as his successor to the throne of Denmark. He admires Fortinbras as a man of action, seeing that that is what his country needs to return stability to it, I do prophesy thelection lights / On Fortinbras. He has my dying voice. The time frame of the play helps to reinforce the impression of time passing. Individuals in the play travel from Denmark to Norway, Pol and and England, from the court to the countryside.Contrasting the activity of Laertes and Fortinbras with the prolonged inactivity of Hamlet. As the hero in this calamity Hamlet doesnt have one, sole, character flaw that leads to his untimely death. He is a thinker involved in a dilemma that can only be solved successfully by a man of action. His inability to act swiftly and decisively without high motivation in connection with his fathers murder brings butchery to the Danish court, his own death and the death of many others in the court. If he had been a man of action Claudius would have been killed months before.

Importance of Customer Satisfaction

Importance of Customer SatisfactionCustomer ServiceIntroductionAccording to Hansemark and Albinsson(2004), pleasure is an overall guest attitude towards a service provider, or an emotional reaction to the difference between what guests anticipate and what they receive, regarding the fulfilment of some need, goal or desire. Customer obedience, on the other hand, according to Anderson and Jacobsen (2000) is actually the result of an organisation creating a benefit for a customer so that they will maintain or increase their purchases from the organisation. received customer inscription is created when the customer becomes an advocate for the organisation, without incentive.To be successful, organizations must cater to the unavoidably, wants and demands of their customers. That is the reason why many companies have continuously focused on the impressiveness of customer mirth and loyalty. Moreover, it has a positive effect on an organisations profitability.thither is also a close and positive connection between customer satisfaction and loyalty. Therefore, customer satisfaction and loyalty are all very important for an organization to be successful.Many researchers have looked into the importance of customer satisfaction. Kotler(2000) defined satisfaction as a persons feelings (pleasure or disappointment) resulting from comparing a intersection performance in relation to his or her expectations. Hoyer and MacInnis (2001) said that satisfaction can be associated with feelings of acceptance, happiness, relief, excitement, and delight. There are many factors that affect customer satisfaction. According to Hokanson (2001), these factors include friendly employees, courteous employees, knowledgeable employees, helpful employees, accuracy of billing, billing timeliness, competitive pricing, service quality, well behaved value, billing clarity and quick service.In order to achieve customer satisfaction, organisations must be able to fulfil their customers needs a nd wants (La Barbera and Mazursky, 2000). Customers needs state the matte up deprivation of a customer (Kotler, 2000).Whereas customers wants, according to Kotler (2000) refer to the form taken by human needs as they are shaped by socialisation and Individual personality.However, Bowen and Chen (2001) said that having satisfied customers is not enough, there has to be extremely satisfied customers. This is because customer satisfaction leads to customer loyalty. Bansal and Gupta (2001)Building customer loyalty is not a choice any longer with businesses its the only way of building sustainable competitive advantage. Building loyalty with key customers has become a core marketing prey shared by key players in all industries catering to business customers. The strategic imperatives for Building a loyal customer base is asFocus on key customersProactively generate high level of Customer satisfaction with every InteractionAnticipate customer needs and respond to them before the compet ition doesBuild closer ties with customersCreate a value perceptionSivadas and Baker-Prewitt (2000) said there is an increasing recognition that the ultimate objective of customer satisfaction measurement should be customer loyalty. Fornell (2002) said high customer satisfaction will result in increased loyalty for the planetary house and that customers will be less prone to overtures from competition. This view was also shared by Anton (2002) who said that satisfaction is positively associated with repurchase intentions, likelihood of recommending a product or service, loyalty and profitability.Loyal customers would purchase from the firm over an extended period of time. (Evans and Berman, 2003). Guiltinan, Paul and Madden (2001) said that satisfied customers are more in all likelihood to be repeat (and even become loyal) customers.Sivadas and Baker-Prewitt (2000)Satisfaction also influences the likelihood of recommending a departmental store as well as repurchase unless has no direct impact on loyalty. Thus satisfaction in itself will not translate into loyalty. However, satisfaction will foster loyalty to the intent that it is a prerequisite for maintaining a favourable relative attitude and for recommending and repurchasing from theStore. Once customers recommend a department store it shows loyalty towards that store. Thus the key to generating loyalty is to get customers to recommend a store to others. Also, customers are likely to recommend a department store when they are satisfied with that store and when they have a favourable relative attitude towards that store. Evans and Berman (2003) Companies with satisfied customers have a good opportunity to convert them into loyal customers who purchases from those firms over an extended period.ConclusionBased on the views and research, it can be concluded that customer satisfaction is very important. Thus, though customer satisfaction does not guarantee repurchase on the part of the customers that still it plays a very important part in ensuring customer loyalty. This point has been echoed by Gerpott et al. (2001) when they said customer satisfaction is a direct ascertain factor in customer loyalty, which, in turn, is a central determinant of customer retention. Therefore, according to me, organisations should always strive to ensure that their customers are very satisfied.ReferencesAnderson, H. Jacobsen P. N., 2000, Creating devotion Its Strategic Importance in Your Customer Strategy.Bansal, S. Gupta, G., 2001, Building Customer Loyalty Business-to-Business Commerce.Bowen, J. T. Chen, S. L., May 2001, the Relationship between Customer Loyalty and Customer Satisfaction, International ledger of Contemporary Hospitality.Evans, J. R. Lindsay, W. M., 2003, the Management and Control of Quality. 3rd Ed.Guiltinan, J. P., Paul, G. W. Madden, T. J.,2001, market Management Strategies and ProgramsHansemark, O. C. Albinson, M., 2004, Customer Satisfaction and Retention The Experien ces of Individual Employees, Managing Service Quality.Hoyer, W. D. MacInnis, D. J., 2001, Consumer Behaviour. 2nd Ed.Hokanson, S., January 2, 2001, The Deeper You Analyse, The More You Satisfy CustomersKotler, P., 2000, Marketing Management. 10th Ed.LaBarbera, P. A. Mazursky, D., 2000, A Longitudinal Assessment of Consumer Satisfaction.Sivadass, E. Baker-Prewitt, J. L., 2000, An Examination of the Relationship Between Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction, and Store Loyalty.

Discuss The Contention That Conflict And Dispute Are Inevitable

Discuss The Contention That combat And affray Are InevitableINTRODUCTION encounters as well as feud are for sure inevitable in most of the commercial intentions whether wide-ranging or small. To be precise, Conflict and Dispute is always at that place, not only in commercial forecasts but are a part of our daily life. There is always a remainder going on on as big as on an international level like ongoing dispute betwixt Israel and Palestine to small issues like a husband and wife having a confrontation as where to go out for dinner.Conflict in simple words quarter be defined as a disagreement all over a situation between deuce or more parties/individuals where they have there own vested interests. Conflict is short termed and is easy to resolve, while on the just about other leave, dispute is when it becomes deep-rooted and n 1 of the parties seems to be able to reach an agreement. Conflict smoke be resolved easily while on the other hand there is a need for a third p arty intervention to resolve a dispute, which itself is time-consuming, expensive and unpleasant. In other words, we can say that fight can be managed, but to an extent of preventing it. If not, it leads to dispute.CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICTConflict can further be classified as Functional and impaired, depending on the outcome. Earlier, scholars believed that mesh is a bad thing and should be avoided at all costs, but this was contradicted by Mary Parker Follett (1925), who coined the idea that effective conflict management ought not to believe conflict as a wasteful outbreak of incompatibilities, but a normal process whereby socially valuable differences register themselves for the enrichment for all concerned.Functional Conflict It works towards the goal of a project. Mary Parker Follett (1925) called it Constructive Conflict, which increases the information and ideas, encourage innovative thinking, unshackles different point of views and reduces stagnation at any stage of the project.Dysfunctional Conflict It is destructive in nature and blocks the project from reaching the goal. It brings tension, anxiety and stress for everyone twisting. It drives out low conflict tolerant people form the project and reduces the trust for everyone involved, proveing in poor decision making arising due to withheld or distorted information and diversion of resources on the conflict rather than the project.Conflict, in general, can be dealt with by following three methodsLose-Lose method In this, each human face gives up some of its interests. This is done by Avoidance by staying out-of-door from the problem or withdrawing but it is not a permanent solution. The other option is Compromise which is done by bargaining and negotiating, in which each side looses something.Win-Lose method Also known as domination, in which there is a victory of one side over other and is done by strength where one party overwhelms the other party. Authoritative Command is other aspect where the soulfulness with authority rules in favor of one party.Win Win order Also known as Integration where each side refocuses there efforts so that neither side loses anything and in fact gains. This is done by purpose the root causes of the problem, due to which conflict has arisen and then try to meet the interests of all the parties which in the end leaves everyone happy.TYPES AND LEVELS OF CONFLICTIntra-organization Conflict As the name suggests, conflicts that occur indoors an organization, at the interfaces of organizational functions. It can occur along the vertical and horizontal hierarchy of the organizations i.e. between the managers and subordinates or between different departments and workgroups.Intra-group Conflict It is between the members of a group, and is usually due to ways of doing the tasks or achieving goals.Inter-personal Conflict It is between two or more people due to differences in opinions and views. This may also be due to differences in orientat ion to work and time in different parts of an organization.Intra-personal Conflict It is more of a psychological issue. It occurs within an individual, when a person feels threatened to ones values, has a feeling of unfair treatment.Inter-organizational Conflict It is between two or more organizations, when they are working together, especially on a project. It is not related to competition. Typical example can be that of a conflict between a supplier and distributor.CONFLICT AND DISPUTES ARE INEVITABLEConflict and Disputes as mentioned are an unavoidable part of any commercial project by the virtue of the nature of the project. Any commercial project involves a variety of minutes as well as relationships on a local, national as well as international level. Due to the complexity of a commercial project involving customer, consultant, contractors, subcontractors and suppliers it becomes inevitable. There can be a good turn of issues for ambiguity between different parties like pro ject delays, careen in oscilloscope of work, payment issues, spirit issues, change in specifications, administrative problems, personal damages, inflation etc to name a few. Managers have to build up, nurture and maintain a network of relationships to make there projects a success.Project Delays Time management is very crucial for any commercial project. All the activities in a project are lined up one after another and are interlinked. Any kind of delay in this causes the whole project to be delayed, affecting the cash-flow as well as ruining the relationship of all the involved. In many cases financial losses are also incurred by those involved due to delay caused by one of the involved. For example, project handing over got delayed due to delay caused by one sub contractor, and for which the main contractor gets penalized. This penalty he will try to dole out evenly between all his sub contractors, which in turn will not be accepted by those who have finished there scope of w ork on time, hence leading to conflict.Change in Scope/Specifications Once everything had been finalized, any change in the scope of work or change in specifications can have a direct impact on the financial as well as the lead time of the project, which can result in the conflict between the parties involved. For example for a project, contractor has already procured some material, or has outsourced a particular job, but when asked to incorpo lay out those changes by the client/consultant, he suffers a financial loss or he has to change the supplier with whom he has placed the order to meet the required specifications.Payments Conflict can arise due to delay in payments either by one of the parties involved in the project, due to financial crunch or because there has been some delay or there is some defective performance in terms of quality by the other. Whatever the case maybe, it disrupts the cash-flow whole project, affecting parties involved e.g. If a contractor doesnt pays to a sub-contractor, he in turn cannot make the payments to his suppliers as well as employees and defaults, which directly affects the progress of the project leading to conflict between the sub-contractor and the contractor.Administrative Problems It is another issue for conflict arising due to mismanagement or lack of coordination between different agencies involved, which lead to project delays, cost over-run which in turn results in loss for the project. For example, in a project, scope of work of two sub-contractors is interdependent. If there is no coordination between them, it will result in unnecessary delay for the project.ConclusionThe above mentioned are a few aspects of conflict which are common in any commercial project, whether its a construction, development or an IT project. From here we can infer that conflict is a set of inter-related elements namely parties, issues, dynamics and context. Since it is very difficult in any commercial project, involving large number o f players, to maintain a balance between all these elements, conflict becomes inevitable. Conflict if taken in a positive note, and if resolved appropriately, can leads towards betterment and roaring delivery of a project. If not they lead towards dispute which itself is unpleasant, diverts valuable resources from the overall aim, is time consuming, costly and destroys the relationship between those involved which may have taken years to develop. Dispute at all cost should be avoided and should be resolved still when its at a level of conflict.DISPUTE RESOLUTION TECHNIQUES IN A COMMERCIAL CONTRACTIn any commercial project, there is always discrepancy/disagreement regarding the scope of work, deadlines, etc which leads to conflicts and when they get out of hand, leads to Dispute. Disputes in general, in a commercial contract are addressed to by the following three methodsNegotiationintermediationArbitrationNegotiation is a tool by which we deal with our differences. These differenc es may be over the price of everyday grocery, or an automobile or a labor contract or maybe an union between the two companies. In general as per the academicians and theorists, there are two types of negotiation theories namely positional Negotiation and principled Negotiation. While in positional negotiation, negotiation is done in such a way that the other party looses its faith in its own case and submits to the start-off demands of the first party, in high-principled negotiation, a softer approach is taken to reach a solution. It is based on the following principles Separate people from Problem, Focus on interests, not positions and Invent options for Mutual Gains.intermediation on the other hand gets the involvement of a third party (neutral) to resolve the outstanding issues and helps them to reach an agreement. Unlike negotiation, it is around semi-formal, with the outcome may or may not be covert to the parties, as per the agreement.In case of Arbitration, it is a form al, secret form of an Alternate Dispute cloture. Here the disputed parties refer to one or more persons (arbitrator or an arbitrator tribunal), who in turn reviews the facts and gives the decision which is legally binding on both the parties. The major difference between Mediation and Arbitration is that mediator always tries to reach a compromise while an arbitrator gives decision which is lawfully binding to both the parties.While Negotiation is very common and is used frequently as compared to Mediation and Arbitration, Mediation is the fastest means to as compared to the other two options. The cost incurred is solving the dispute is highest in Arbitration but depends on number of factors, but still, as compared to Mediation and Negotiation. While Arbitration is recognized by common law and the decision made by an arbitrator will uphold in lawcourt of law, this is not true in case of Mediation and Negotiation, but depends on the mutual agreement of the disputing parties. Howev er, if agreed beforehand, the agreement reached via Mediation can also be binding for all the parties involved.Apart from these, Litigation is another dispute resolving technique, to which the disputing parties can resort to. This is a formal process in which the case of the disputing parties is taken to the court and the proceedings are held in public. Compared to Negotiation, Mediation and Arbitration, Litigation is a Slow, time consuming and a very expensive process, where the trials are held in public and there is no scope for confidentiality.THE POTENTIAL workout OF PRINCIPLED NEGOTIATION IN THE INDIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYNegotiation is a tool used by means of a dialogue between the two or more parties to resolve issues, bargain or to satisfy ones vested interests which can be broadly classified into needs, aspirations, fears and desires. Negotiation is classified into two typesPositional NegotiationPrincipled NegotiationPrincipled Negotiation is a relatively new phenomenon, which was coined in late 70s by Fisher and Ury. They gave four basic principles for the Principled Negotiation which are as under-.Separate people from the ProblemFocus in interests and not problemsInvent options for mutual gainsSelect among options by using clinical criteriaCharles G. Fields has described Principled Negotiation as a 7 elements framework namely Interests, Options, Legitimacy, Communications, Relationships, Commitments and Alternatives.INDIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND PRINCIPLED NEGOTIATION aft(prenominal) agriculture, construction sector is the largest industry in India. India being a developing country and estimated to become the third largest economy by 2025, and with an economic growth rate of almost 7%, there is a huge demand for the infrastructure and construction projects. Every year, Billions of US$ are spent, both by public and private sector on construction and infrastructure protects. As the construction market is growing by leaps and bounds, so as the co nflict and dispute, which then go to the court of law (litigation) to be resolved. The judicial framework of India moves at a very slow pace and is very expensive, and hence there is a need for an alternative.Principled Negotiation, on the other hand is much less time consuming and expensive as compared to litigation and also the relationships between the parties are also not destroyed and consequently the disputing parties reach to a satisfactory agreement. Due to this, not only Principle Negotiation technique but Alternate Dispute Resolution Techniques have a good potential in India.REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYConflict online, available http//webhome.idirect.com/kehamilt/ipsyconf.html accessed 10 September 2009Gray, C. and Larson, E (2008) Project Management The Managerial Process, 4th ed., capital of Massachusetts McGraw-Hill.Fisher, R., Ury, W. and Patton, B. (1991) Getting to Yes Negotiating an Agreement without giving in, Second Edition, Century Business, London.Fenn, P and Gam eson, R (Eds) (1992), Construction Conflict Management and Resolutions, Chapman Hall, LondonTrust and conflict within virtual(prenominal) inter-organizational alliances a framework for facilitating knowledge sharing online, available http//www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL_udi=B6V8S-4CDJKMV-2_user=121749_rdoc=1_fmt=_orig=search_sort=d_docanchor=view=c_searchStrId=1111593104_rerunOrigin=google_acct=C000024058_version=1_urlVersion=0_userid=121749md5=5bf1d2dde69eccc5b0f0becb1595c3f9 accessed 12 September 2009Rahim, M. Afzalur , Toward a Theory of Managing Organizational Conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2002. online Available http//ssrn.com/abstract=437684 accessed 12 November 2009Fernandez Jimenez de Cisneros, Inmaculada, Dorado, Miguel ., Martinez, Ines, Medina, Francisco J. and Munduate Jaca, Lourdes, Types of Conflict and Personal and Organizational Consequences. IACM 15th Annual Conference. online Availablehttp//ssrn.com/abstract=30 5068 or doi10.2139/ssrn.305068 accessed 12 November 2009

Management Respiratory Distress Syndrome Infants Health And Social Care Essay

Management respiratory Distress Syndrome Infants Health And Social C are EssayRespiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is one of the around common consequences of prematurity and a leading ca design of neonatal mortality and morbidity as a dissolvent of unseasoned lungs. RDS particularly sees neonates born before 32 weeks of gestational age but is too recognised in babies with delayed lung maturation of different aetiology i.e. enate diabetes. Since its initial recognition in that location turn over been vast advances in understating the pathology and focal point of this multiform syndrome. However, in guild to understand the pathology behind RDS it is imperative to obtain a good foundation of ruler lung maturation and physiological changes that occur in the respiratory system during the regeneration from foetal to neonatal life.Physiological Development and cash in ones chips of the lungsDuring intrauterine growth, foetal lung increment begins as archaeozoic as 3 week s and progresses until 2-3 years. Conventionally it is divided into 5 stages embryonic, pseudoglandular, canalicular, saccular and finally dental consonant1 (Table 1). During the embryonic stage, the lungs develop from the fetal exoderm to form the trachea, the main bronchi, the five lobes of the lung and the major stock certificate vessels that connect the fetal lungs to the heart the pulmonary arteries. This is followed by the pseudo glandular stage which results in the organisation of the destinationinal bronchioles and associated primitive alveoli. These therefore however divide in the Canalicular stage to form the primary alveoli and subsequently the alveolar capillary barrier. This stage also comprises the differentiation of Type 1 and 2 pneumocytes which willing later go on to produce wetter. Thus babies born later 24 weeks, soak up a chance of survival as the platform for basic ball up exchange has begun to develop. During the saccular stage there is further diffe rentiation of type 1 and type 2 pneumocytes and the walls of the noteways, in particular the alveoli, thin to enlarge the surface area present for gaseous exchange. This is followed by the alveolar stage which occurs through the transition form fetal to neonatal life up until 2-3 years. The hallmark of this stage is alveolar formation and multiplication to augment the surface area available for gas exchange to encounter the increasing respiratory demands as the infant grows.StageTime periodStructural DevelopmentEmbryonic0-7 weeksTrachea, main bronchi and five lobes of the lungs develop from the fetal ectoderm. pulmonary arteries form and connect to heart.Pseudoglandular7-17 weeksFormation of terminal bronchioles and alveoliCanalicular17-27 weeksFormation of alveoli-capillary barrier and differentiation of type I and II pneumocytesSaccular28-36 weeksWalls of airway thin for efficient gas exchangeAlveolar36 weeks -2 yearsAlveolar multiplicationTable 1 Stages of Lung DevelopmentOnce the pulmonary epithelium develops, it begins to secret fluid into fetal lungs, the volume and rate of which is imperative for normal lung growth. Another important factor requisite for normal lung evolution and function is the production of bed wetter.At about 24 weeks of gestation the enzymes and lamellar bodies required for surfactant production and storage begin to appear 3. Thus a normal fetus age is not ready to be delivered at this stage due to surfactant deficiency. As type II pneumocytes mature between 32-36 weeks, surfactant production increases and it is stored in the lamellar bodies of these cells. wetter is a complex mixture of phospholipids, neutral lipids and proteins 1, 4 that has a fundamental parting in maintaining the alveolar-capillary interface and reducing surface tension. It is secreted as a thin film at the liquid-air barriers to facilitate alveolar expansion and prevent residue-expiratory generate of small alveoli, especially at low alveolar volumes.A k ey event in the development of the lungs is the establishment of spontaneous animated post-delivery. Prior to delivery the fetal lungs decrease lung fluid production and as the lungs mature there is simultaneous maturation of the lung lymphatic system. During labour the mechanized compression of the fetal chest forces about 1/3 of this lung fluid thus preparing the fetus for spontaneous ventilation. This will require several(prenominal) stimuli including hypoxia, hypercrabia and acidosis as a results of labour5 and hypothermia and tactile stimulation. to a greater extentover the stress of labour stimulates chemo- receptors in the fetal aorta and carotids to trigger the respiratory centre in the medulla to commence breathing. As the fetus emerges from the birthing canal, the fetal chest re-expands creating negative airway pressure which subsequently draws air into the lungs. This again forces the lung fluid out of the alveoli and allows for adequate lung expansion. As the newborn infant cries there is further expansion and lung aeration generating authoritative intrathoracic pressure which maintains alveolar patency and forces any remaining fluid into the lymphatic circulation.As the neonate adapts to extra-uterine life, the normal muscles of respiration work to maintain breathing (Figure 1). In order to inhale, the diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract to increase the size of the thorax. This generates negative air pressure in the pleura and lowers the air pressure in the lungs so that the gradient between atmospheric air and alveolar air endeavors air to enter into the lung of the neonate. As the neonate inhales, the elastic recoil force of the lung increases. Once inspiration ceases, the elastic recoil force of the lung ca engagements expiration. The diaphragm and external intercostals muscles relax, the thorax returns to its pre-inspiratory volume resulting in an increase in intra-thoracic pressure. This pressure is right off greater than atmospheric pressure and air moves out of the lungs producing exhalation.Figure 1 The Mechanics of breathing6For most neonates, this transition from fetal to extra-uterine life is uneventful and completed during the runner 24 hours of life. The neonate is able to establish good lung function, maintain cardiac output and thermoregulate. However, for a certain population of neonates, usually those that are born early and thus called preterm, this transition is less smooth and it is these babies that will require the support and care of the whole paediatric department.Respiratory Distress SyndromeRespiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is the most prevalent disorder of prematurity and despite a better understanding of its aetiology and pathology, RDS still accounts for prodigious neonatal mortality and morbidity. The incidence RDS is inversely proportional to gestational age2 such that it decreases with advancing gestational age, from about 60-80% in babies born at 26-28 weeks, to about 15-30% in babies born at 32-36 weeks 1. Risk factors for developing RDS are summarised in Table 2 and include maternal illness, complications during pregnancy and labour and neonatal complicationsTable 2 Risk Factors for RDS1Respiratory distress presents early in post-natal life particularly during the phase of transition from fetal to extra-uterine life. These babies will present with signs of grunting, cyanosis, pinched flaring, intercostal and subcostal recession, increased respiratory crusade, and less commonly apnoeic episodes and circulative failure. The severity of symptoms experienced are related to the pathology of disease and it is important to identify babies at greatest venture and commence precaution early in order to prevent respiratory complications such as chronic lung disease (previously called bronchopulmonary dysplasia), pulmonary hypertension and in adverse cases respiratory failure and even death.Identifying normal transition and respiratory distress is largely based on evaluating the risk factors for RDS, assessing the severity of symptoms and close neonatal observation if in doubt. Babies that are born close to term or those via caesarean section may display a difficult albeit a normal transition. These babies present with transient tachypnoea of the newborn in the first fewer hours with respiratory rates of about 100 breaths per minute and increased oxygen requirements. Symptoms are short lived, self limiting in most cases and usually relived by oxygen. Neonates who suffer from RDS will present with worsening symptoms of longer duration, respiratory rates of 120 and increased respiratory effort with a longer requirement for oxygen. convalescence if plausible usually begins after 72 hours and is associated with change magnitude oxygen requirements and better functional residual capacity.Pathophysiology of Respiratory Distress SyndromeSince its initial recognition, more than 30-40 years ago, oft has been elucidated about t he pathophysiology of this complex syndrome. In the premature neonate, the structurally immature and surfactant deficient lung is unable to maintain the basic lung mechanics required for adequate ventilation. As aforementioned lung mechanics rely on surfactant production, alveolar multiplication and maturity for effective gas exchange, chest wall elasticity and a functionally developed diaphragm. It is therefore evident that premature neonate who lack surfactant and have structurally immature lungs will develop RDS, atelectasis and abnormal lung function. In these neonates the essential first breaths are followed by a secondary pathological placeer characterised by tissue damage, protein leakage into the alveolar space and inflammation, which may resolve or progress to BDP or chronic lung disease of prematurity (CLD)7.In neonates with RDS, end-expiration results in the collapse of alveoli due to surfactant deficiency and a subsequent reduction in the functional residual capacity (F RC). The FRC is the volume available for gaseous exchange i.e the volume of gas left in the lungs after exhalation. It is determined by an conglomerate balance between the collapsing and expanding forces of the chest wall and lungs7. An ideal FRC enables the best possible lung mechanics, efficient ventilation and gaseous exchange.As the FRC is scale downd at end-expiration due to alveolar collapse due to high surface tension, the pressure that will be required to re-inflate the already immature lungs is increased. This in turn increases the respiratory effort indispensable for adequate gas exchange which presents clinically as increased respiratory rate and subcostal/intercostal recession. Moreover reaching an optimal FRC may be further impeded by both surfactant deficiency and by the preterm infants impaired ability to clear fetal lung fluid. Radiographically a chest x-ray will array the characteristic ground-glass appearance with diminished lung volumes and the cardinal featu res of respiratory stress, tachypnoea, nasal flaring, intercostals recession, subcostal recession, increased breathing effort and grunting will begin to manifest early on.Despite this effort to breathe, alveolar ventilation remains unequal. As these areas are receiving an adequate blood supply this produces a ventilation/perfusion mismatch resulting in right to left intrapulmonary shunting1. The lungs are unable to maintain good gas exchange and blood oxygen saturation and the level of carbon dioxide begins to increase resulting in respiratory acidosis, hypoxaemia and hypercarbia. The neonate further struggles to breath and attempts to generate higher negative pleural pressures to ventilate the lungs. The ensuing acidosis further diminishes surfactant production and neonates deteriorate rapidly as blood oxygen saturations plummet. The natural progression of the disease if left untreated will lead to pulmonary oedema, right-sided heart-failure and ultimately the most devastating out come, neonatal death.Therefore the management of these neonates requires an aggressive multi-disciplinary team approach based on the pathology of these aforementioned homeostatic mechanisms. Alongside this the basic principles of neonatology thermoregulation, nutritional support, efficacious cardiovascular support and infection control, are all fundamental in achieving the best therapeutic goal. Ultimately the aim is to provide adequate ventilatory support, allow the lungs to heal, impede further pulmonary injury, subdue hypoxaemia and acidosis and above all to keep the neonate alive.Management of RDSAs aforementioned the aim of intercession is to promote lung healing and reduce further pulmonary insults. We have already established that with increasing gestational age, particularly post-32 weeks, the infant will require less aid to help it cope with the transition from fetal to neonatal life. However, before 32-weeks there is an increased propensity to develop RDS and as the neo nate is unable to cope, some form of respiratory support is required. Over the past 40 years there have been numerous management therapies including ventilatory support, surfactant therapy, nitric oxide therapy and supportive therapeutics strategies amongst others. The mainstay of interposition today remains supportive and involves the use of antenatal steroids, surfactant replacement therapy, nonstop positive airway pressure and mechanical ventilation, which all aim to address the pulmonary insufficiency that manifest in these individualsAntenatal GlucocorticoidsGlucocorticoid receptors are expressed in the fetal lung at early gestation and as the fetus grows stimulate surfactant production post-32 weeks. Alongside receptor expression there is an increase in fetal cortisol levels at late gestation9, which coincides with lung maturation, type II pneumocyte differentiation, surfactant synthesis as well as alveolar thinning. If birth occurs before this increase in serum cortisol, th e pulmonary system has not matured adequately and therefore there is an increased propensity to develop RDS. Thus a single dose of glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone or betamethasone in the antenatal period promotes lung maturation.One of the first promulgated reviews that showed the efficacy of antenatal steroids in preterm labour was produced by Crowley in 19958. Crowley showed that steroids apt(p) in preterm labour were effective in preventing RDS and improving neonatal mortality rates. Since then several randomised controlled clinical trial runs have evaluated the efficacy of steroids in reducing RDS. A recent Cochrane review of 21 trials assessed the effects of antenatal corticosteroids, given to women expect to go into preterm labour, on fetal/neonatal mortality and morbidity8. The authors concluded that a single dose of antenatal steroids promoted fetal lung maturation thereby reducing the risk of RDS and the get for assisted respiratory management. The mechanisms by wh ich glucocorticoids are thought to exert their efficacy are described below.Firstly, glucocorticoids stimulate phospholipid production. Phospholipids are a major luck of endogenous surfactant and as a result augment surfactant synthesis in the biochemically immature and surfactant deficient lung 9, although the exact mechanisms by which this occurs remains to be elucidated. Secondly glucocorticoids enhance lung maturation and development. As aforementioned, in order to produce surfactant, fetal lungs must produce type II pneumocytes which will then generate lamellar bodies in which surfactant is stored. Glucocorticoids enhance this process, promoting pulmonary epithelial cell maturity and differentiation into type II pneumocytes9. Furthermore glucocorticoids cause a decrease in pulmonary interstitial tissue thereby decreasing alveolar wall thickness. A thin alveolar wall thickness facilitates efficacious gaseous exchange and will therefore assist ventilation and oxygenation of the neonate once born thus decreasing the chances of developing RDS. Another known eudaimonia of antenatal glucocorticoids is found in reducing oxidative stress on the immature lung and prevention of pulmonary oedema9.This accumulative evidence suggests that glucocorticoids are essential for normal pulmonary development and giving a single dose to mothers at risk of preterm birth may substantially decrease the chances of the infant developing RDS.Surfactant TherapyAs discussed before, endogenous surfactant has a fundamental role in maintaining the alveolar-capillary interface in order to prevent end-expiratory alveolar collapse. This is achieved by thin parcel out of surfactant around the alveoli which ultimately acts to reduce surface tension. The most important component of surfactant which achieves this fundamental function is a phospholipid called dipalmitoylated phopshatidylcholine (DPPC)11. DPPC also stabilises the alveoli at end expiration, further preventing alveolar collapse. Alongside DPPC the synergistic actions of surfactant proteins (SP) SP-B and SP-C also lower surface tension11. Thus a deficiency in surfactant will cause alveolar collapse, decrease pulmonary compliance, increased pulmonary vascular resistance and produce ventilation-perfusion mismatch. Hence the aim of exogenous surfactant therapy is to reverse this pathological cascade and ultimately prevent alveolar collapse thereby limiting pulmonary damage and improving ventilation.Since the first clinical trial assessing the use of surfactant in managing neonatal RDS by Fujiwara in the 1980s10, our understanding of the composition, structure and function of surfactant has progressed vastly. In this uncontrolled trial the chest x-rays of 10 babies diagnosed with RDS, both clinically and radiologically, showed significant improvement after exogenous modified bovine surfactant was administered with a decreased requirement for ventilation. Since then several randomised controlled trials12 have sh own that surfactant therapy, on board antenatal steroids and ventilation continues to improve neonatal morbidity and mortality.Both natural (derived from an animal source) and synthetic (manufactured chemically) surfactants are available to use in managing RDS. Meta-analysis of trials comparing the twain types of surfactant have shown that natural surfactants show a more rapid response in improved lung compliance and oxygenation12 thereby reducing neonatal mortality. Furthermore natural surfactants are less sensitive to inhibition by accumulative products of lung injury such as serum proteins.Surfactants need direct delivery to lungs and usually require cannulization with short periods of assisted ventilation. Traditionally two therapeutic approaches have been established in managing RDs with surfactant. The first adopts the use of surfactant encumbranceally, with surfactant given immediately after birth to enable the neonate to cope with extra-uterine life. The obvious benefit of this approach is that surfactant is administered to the baby before severe RDS develops resulting in long-term pulmonary sequelae for the neonate. However this technique is encroaching(a), as surfactant administration requires endotracheal intubation, it is expensive and furthermore it may result in the unnecessary preaching of neonates. Moreover poor intubation with failed attempts and prolonged apnoeic episodes may further damage the lungs resulting in CLD. Despite this, there is a strong body of evidence for prophylactic use of surfactant and current guidelines state that all preterm babies born before 27 weeks of gestation, who have not been given antenatal steroids should be intubated and given surfactant at birth7.The second therapeutic approach evaluates the role of surfactant in bear treatment used in neonates with an established diagnosis of RDS requiring ventilation and oxygen. The advantages of rescue treatment include that it is reserved for neonates in whom RDS is confirmed and it may decrease the morbidity associated with unnecessary intubation. The obvious disadvantage is that delay in surfactant delivery may allow for irreversible lung injury to develop with decreased efficacy of surfactant administration12.Several studies have aimed to clarify the issue between prophylactic and rescue surfactant treatment. A randomised trial by Rojas et al. showed the benefits of surfactant delivery within 1h of birth in neonates born between 27-31 weeks14 with an established diagnosis of RDS who were treated with continuous positive airway pressure soon after birth. 279 infants were randomly assigned either to the treatment group (intubation, very early surfactant, extubation, and nasal continuous positive airway pressure) or the control group (nasal continuous airway pressure alone). The results of this submit demonstrated that infants in the treatment group i.e. those treated with surfactant, showed a decreased need for mechanical ventilation with a d ecrease in the incidence of CLD and pneumothoraces. Neonatal mortality rates were similar between both groups.A meta-analysis by Soll and Morley compared the effects of prophylactic surfactant to surfactant treatment of established respiratory distress syndrome (i.e. rescue treatment) in preterm infants33. The authors analysed eight studies comparing the use of prophylactic and rescue surfactant treatment and concluded that the majority of the evidence demonstrated a decrease in the incidence of RDS when surfactant was given prophylactically. Moreover the meta-analysis showed that infants treated with prophylactic surfactant had a better clinical outcome with a reported decrease in the risk of pneumothorax, pulmonary interstitial emphysema, CLD and mortality33.As a result of such studies most neonatal units continue to practice delivery of surfactant prophylactically in preterm babies at high risk of RDS. However, some literature still debates whether there are any real advantages o f prophylactic surfactant over rescue treatment. What is evident is that surfactant therapy should play a fundamental role in the management of RDS. Future trials will need to further assess the indications for surfactant therapy in treating neonatal RDS and perhaps in the management of other pulmonary insufficiency disorders that affect the neonate. Although much remains to be elucidated about the complex pulmonary surfactant system, since its introduction 25 years ago, surfactant therapy has been at the forefront of reducing RDS and its role in decreasing neonatal mortality and morbidity cannot be disputed.Mechanical ventilationMechanical ventilations is one of the cornerstones of neonatal intensive care units and regardless of the sense modality used, the primary function is to maintain adequate oxygenation and ventilation. The goals of mechanical ventilation areto establish efficacious gaseous exchangeto limit pulmonary insult and CLDto reduce the respiratory effort and work of breathing of the patientTo achieve these basic goals several techniques, devices and therapeutic options are available to the neonatologist that can be either invasive or non-invasive.Continuous Positive Airway PressureThe use of CPAP continuous positive airway pressure, in the treatment of RDS was first described in the seventies and has since been identified as a important management strategy. CPAP applies positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) to the alveoli throughout inspiration and expiration so that the alveoli remain grand thereby preventing collapse. The pressure required to re-inflate the lungs is reduced as partially inflated alveoli are easily to inflate than completely collapsed ones.Animal studies with premature lambs have shown the benefits of nasal CPAP over mechanical ventilation. CPAP acts to lower the markers for CLD for example granulocytes, and markers of white cell activation, increases the amount of surfactant available, improves oxygenation and eventually corrects ventilation/perfusion mismatching2, 15. Moreover CPAP produces a more regulated descriptor of breathing in neonates by stabilising the chest wall and reducing thoracic distortion16.Like surfactant therapy there are two ways in which CPAP can be administered. The first method, InSUrE intubation, surfactant and extubation, adopts a brief intubation to administer surfactant and extubation to CPAP approach and the second is the Columbia method in which babies are started on CPAP in the delivery room and are only mechanically ventilated, and intubated if the need for surfactant is established.Several studies have shown the benefit of the first approach. A study by Verder et al. randomised 68 neonates with moderate to severe RDS 35 infants were randomised to surfactant therapy following a short period of intubation and then extubation to CPAP and 33 neonates were randomised to nasal CPAP alone. The results of this study showed that infants in the earlier group had a reduced nee d for ventilation 21% in comparison to 63% in the second group16,17. Another similar trial by Haberman et al. assessed the use of surfactant with early extuabtion to CPAP and subsequently the results showed a decreased need and duration for mechanical ventilation12. Furthermore a recent Cochrane review of six studies using the InSuRE method showed that neonates with RDS treated with early surfactant therapy followed by nasal CPAP, were less in all probability to need mechanical ventilation and develop air leaks in comparison to neonates that were treated with the Columbia approach (i.e. early CPAP therapy followed by surfactant if needed)17, 18. A more recent review by the same authors further confirmed the findings of the initial review and the relative risk for developing CLD was 0.51 (95% CI 0.26-0.99) with early surfactant treatment and nasal CPAP when comparing the two methods18.The Columbia method requires the stabilisation of neonates with CPAP in the delivery room with intu bation and surfactant therapy used as necessitated. This approach was adopted when retrospectives studies done by Avery et al. and later Van Marter et al. evaluated the clinical outcomes in multiple neonatal units across the US2. In both cases a lower incidence of CLD was ascertained in the Columbia University Hospital which adopted CPAP as a primary treatment strategy as opposed to intubation and mechanical ventilation give care other units. Leading on from this Ammari et al.. evaluated the Columbia method recently. The outcomes of 261 neonates with birth weight So far the evidence base for the Columbia method has been derived from retrospective age bracket studies with a lacking in RCTS and therefore a lack of stronger evidence. One RCT that had aimed to evaluate the Columbia method was the recent COIN trial by Morley. This study evaluated whether the incidence of death or BPD would be reduced by CPAP rather than intubation and ventilation shortly after birth13. 610 neonates bor n between 25-28 weeks were randomised to CPAP or intubation and ventilation at 5minutes after birth and surfactant was administered at the neonatologists discretion. The results of the study demonstrated that at 28 days of gestation, infants in the CPAP group had a decreased need for supplemental oxygen and fewer deaths2,13. However worrying results from this study were that approximately 46% of babies in the CPAP group went onto require intubation and had a higher rate of pneumothoraces13.There are few randomised control trials assessing the benefit of CPAP alone in managing RDS and the results of the Columbia Hospital study have been irreproducible in other centres. The mainstream use of CPAP for managing RDS remains to start CPAP in the delivery room, after intubation for surfactant treatment. There is not enough evidence to show that CPAP alone can prevent RDS and associated complications in comparison with invasive ventilation. The evidence does suggest that there is a decrease in complications with surfactant therapy and CPAP but the human relationship with CLD is less transparent.At present there are two RCTs ongoing that may provide further insight into the role of CPAP in RDS when complete. The first trial is the SUPPORT study, which is randomising infants between 24-27 weeks to CPAP beginning in the delivery room with stringent criteria for subsequent intubation, or intubation with surfactant treatment within 1 h of birth with continuing mechanical ventilation2. The second is the trial by the Vermont-Oxford Network in which infants born at 26-29 weeks gestation will be randomised after 6 days into one of three groups (1) intubation, early prophylactic surfactant, and subsequent stabilisation on mechanical ventilation (2) intubation, early prophylactic surfactant, and rapid extubation to CPAP and lastly (3) early stabilisation with nasal CPAP, with selective intubation and surfactant administration according to clinical guidelines2. The immediate man agement of the RDS neonate with CPAP remains controversial and peradventure the results of these ongoing RCTS will provide invaluable answers to the many uncertainties surrounding this device.Nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilationAnother relatively recent development in non-invasive ventilation that has evolved from NICU ventilator machines and CPAP devices is the use of NIPPV for managing RDS. Sometimes called BiPAP (for bi-level positive airway pressure), this form of non-invasive ventilation is able to provide two levels of airway pressure, without the need for intubation. BiPAP maintains positive pressure throughout respiration but with a jolly higher pressure during inspiration. By doing so BiPAP/NIPPV is able to assist neonatal breathing byreducing the work of breathingimproving tidal volumeincreasing blood oxygen saturation and increasing removal of CO2 thereby limiting hypoxaemia and respiratory acidosis.As the neonate inhales, the NIPPV device generates a positi ve pressure thereby assisting the neonates spontaneous breath and providing ventilatory support. This is at a slightly higher positive pressure. As the neonate begins to exhale, the pressure drops, but a positive airway pressure remains in the lungs to prevent alveolar collapse and thus increase gaseous exchange.NIPPV may be a potential beneficial treatment for the management of babies with RDS and has been used in NICUs since the 1980s. Recently multiple studies have aimed to evaluate the efficacy of NIPPV in stabilising neonates. A randomised controlled prospective study by Kulgeman et al.. found that NIPPV was more successful than NCPAP in the initial treatment of RDs in preterm infants19. Kulgeman and his colleagues randomised infants A further study by Sai and colleagues also established the advantages of NIPPV over CPAP in managing RDs and reducing the need for mechanical ventilation and intubation in preterm infants. In their study 76 neonates between 28-34 weeks gestation wi th RDs at 6h of birth were randomised either to early NIPPV (37 neonates) or early CPAP (39 neonates) after surfactant use20. Firstly they documented that the failure rate with NIPPV was less in comparison to the CPAP group (p

G. Carter Bentley :: essays research papers

G. Carter Bentley&type A8217s usage theory is a popular approach in understanding how culturality is constructed and ethnic identity is maintained. Here we shift from boundaries to focus on people& angstrom unit8217s patterns of roll in the hays, twain objective and subjective. Bentley draws on Bordieu&8217s concepts of "habitus" and " charge". Bordieu argues that the objective conditions, mediated by systems of symbolic representations, generate in incompatible persons dispositions to act in different ways (Bentley 1987 28) Habitus compromises "&8230a particularize of generative schemes that produce practices and representations that are regular without reference to overt rules and that are goal directed without requiring conscious selection of goals or command of methods achieving them." (as quoted in Bentley, Ibid.,). then habits become a mechanic way of cosmos, acting and thinking, developed through 1) kindly practices, 2) shared experien ces, 3) experimentation and 4) comprehension of those relationships or expiration at both the conscious and unconscious levels. There is constant interplay between these levels (collectively and individually).     Practice is a concept linked to the Marxist tradition of emphasizing source relations. This is connected to ethnic identity in that to look at experiences people go through we have to distinguish between the different domains of experience and social practice. Analysis of different domains will tell us how they influence people&8217s perception of the world, of their place in society as members of a group. Because this process involves interrelationships, it is chief(prenominal) to focus on the experience of interaction. Secondly, there must be an analysis of discourses by the state (i.e. laws, policies etc.) and how they are articulated, and how the discourses of leaders of ethnic groups mother resonance by their group. Both these levels of anal ysis help us understand ethnicity as an ideology and how ethnic identity cannot be kept separate from experience and social practice. Bentley ethnicity and practice          Bentley demonstrates the relationship between patterns of practice and sensations of ethnic affinity by the example of a Marano woman who has struggled with a sense of ambivalent ethnicity "&8230a skin senses that she is neither here nor there but instead limited in a system Philippine social context of categorical identities" (Bentley 1987 29). Soraya&8217s experience illustrates the protect of the theory of practice. Sensations of ethnic affinity are founded on common life experience and of the preconscious habitus it generates that gives members of an ethnic group their sense of being familiar to severally other (Bentley 1987 33).G. Carter Bentley essays research papers G. Carter Bentley&8217s practice theory is a popular approach in understanding how ethnicity is constructed and ethnic identity is maintained. Here we shift from boundaries to focus on people&8217s patterns of experiences, both objective and subjective. Bentley draws on Bordieu&8217s concepts of "habitus" and "practice". Bordieu argues that the objective conditions, mediated by systems of symbolic representations, generate in different persons dispositions to act in different ways (Bentley 1987 28) Habitus compromises "&8230a set of generative schemes that produce practices and representations that are regular without reference to overt rules and that are goal directed without requiring conscious selection of goals or mastery of methods achieving them." (as quoted in Bentley, Ibid.,). Hence habits become a mechanic way of being, acting and thinking, developed through 1) social practices, 2) shared experiences, 3) experimentation and 4) comprehension of those relationships or difference at both the conscious and unconscious lev els. There is constant interplay between these levels (collectively and individually).     Practice is a concept linked to the Marxist tradition of emphasizing power relations. This is connected to ethnic identity in that to look at experiences people go through we have to distinguish between the different domains of experience and social practice. Analysis of different domains will tell us how they influence people&8217s perception of the world, of their place in society as members of a group. Because this process involves interrelationships, it is important to focus on the experience of interaction. Secondly, there must be an analysis of discourses by the state (i.e. laws, policies etc.) and how they are articulated, and how the discourses of leaders of ethnic groups find resonance by their group. Both these levels of analysis help us understand ethnicity as an ideology and how ethnic identity cannot be kept separate from experience and social practice. Bent ley ethnicity and practice          Bentley demonstrates the relationship between patterns of practice and sensations of ethnic affinity by the example of a Marano woman who has struggled with a sense of ambivalent ethnicity "&8230a feeling that she is neither here nor there but instead limited in a system Philippine social context of categorical identities" (Bentley 1987 29). Soraya&8217s experience illustrates the value of the theory of practice. Sensations of ethnic affinity are founded on common life experience and of the preconscious habitus it generates that gives members of an ethnic group their sense of being familiar to each other (Bentley 1987 33).

Belonging and Difference in Imagined Communities Essay -- Media Commun

Belonging and Difference in Imagined Communities Much recent theory has been concerned with defining and examining new media the forms of communication and mediation that have arisen through and through advances in electronics and digital technologies. These new media forms and the speed of their dissemination are paralleled by faster transportation and the movement and subsequent settlement of stacks across the globe in what has come to be called diaspora. The situation is such that many of the aged boundaries and barriers by which nations defined themselves have become less certain, challenged by the increasing power of people to move across them whether literally or figuratively. Diaspora has become a term in academic parlance that is associated with the experience of travel or the introduction of ambiguity into discourses of home and belonging. It is in some ways a reaction to liberal ideas of multiculturalism. Diasporic subjects often seem to be under the law of the hyphen (M ishra, 421-237), they defy classical epistemologies and jostle to find room in a space that has yet to be semanticized, the dash between two surrounding words. Today, there are many more people whose bodies do non signify an unproblematic identity of selves with nations (Mishra, 431).According to Vijay Mishra, this gives rise to the creation in plural/multicultural societies of an impure genre of the hyphenated subject (Mishra, 433). This subject is in search of an ultimate national identity, with the pith of such unwieldy nomenclatures as African-American, Asian-Australian and the like not coming to rest on either constitutive term, but being lost somewhere in the hyphen. modernistic media both exacerbate and alleviate this exilic consciousness... .... New York, Hampton Press, 1996, p 132.Mishra, Vijay. The Diasporic Imaginary Theorizing the Indian Diaspora. Textual Practice 103 (1996) 421-237.Papastergiadis, Nikos. Introduction In root word in Modernity. In Dialogues in the D iasporas, New York University Press, 1998.Shohat, Ella. By the Bitstream of Babylon Cyberfrontiers and Diasporic vistas. Home, Exile, Homestead Film, Media and the Politics of Place, ed Hamid Naficy, NY, Routledge, 1998, p 219.Sinfield, Alan. Diaspora and Hybridity Queer Identities and the Ethnicity Model. Textual Practice 102, 1996, p 271-293.Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Diasporas old and new women in the transnational world. Textual Practice 102, 1996, p 245-269.Tepper, Michele. Usenet Communities and the Cultural Politics of Information in Internet Culture, ed. Porter, D. Routledge, London, 1997.

The two peaces of poetry I have studied by Seamus Heaney include Essay

The two peaces of poetry I have studied by Seamus Heaney includeFollower and The Early Purges.Heaneys poems both relate back to his younger, adolescent life. Inthe poem Early purges, he describes young kittens being drowned onthe farm. His maturity is shown when he says with perception, Andnow, when shrill pups argon prodded to drown, I however shrug, Bloodypups . But we are shown that he is still careless now, as well in acasual way by saying I just shrug. He is also unsympathetic, andjustifies his actions like Dan. He is now older, looking back andchanged.The language accustomd by Heaney also expresses the fact that undersize wasthought of these so-called nuisances. He says they are slung and DanTaggart describes them as scraggy wee shits. This shows howunsympathetic he was and how the kittens neednt be cared about.Seamus Heaney also tries to describe the habitual drowning of lesserkittens. Again, he tries to use language to appeal more and give us abetter personal picture of events. For instance, when describing thekittens, just after their death, he quite brightly says, Like plasteredgloves they bobbed and shone till he sluiced them out on the dunghill,glossy and dead. Glossy and dead are two contrasting words - glossyis a healthy appearance, but its however because the water drowned thekittens, where the word death comes in.Heaney goes on to say watching the three sogged remains turn mealyand crisp as old summer dung. This is very imagery language, and by chance quite disturbing, although I think it adds more atmosphere tothe poem, because summer is supposed to be happy and fresh, whereasdung isnt. And turn mealy and crisp, which gives the impressionthat he tried to pr... ...side with Heaney. Thearguments pitch up by Dan Taggart, such as Sure isnt it better forthem now? are seen to be realistic later on in the poem when Heaneysays, It makes ace. The images which he uses, however, encourageus to sympathise with him, such as Suddenly frightened, fo r days Isadly hung round the yard where we picture a small boy frightened atthe power of adults over the poor helpless animals.This poem again, like Follower shows that life in the country can bevery difficult, especially if you have to kill small animals, but ifyou work hard, then the farm will run better.Both poems have main themes, and they are very similar to eachother.It is all about the hard work involved in running a farm, therelationship between the father and son, and the expectation thatprofessing and skills will be carried on throughout the family.